Conquest of the societies and the cultures

Anı´bal Quijano
COLONIALITY AND MODERNITY/
RATIONALITY
With the conquest of the societies and the cultures which inhabit what today is
called Latin America, began the constitution of a new world order,
culminating, five hundred years later, in a global power covering the whole
planet. This process implied a violent concentration of the world’s resources
under the control and for the benefit of a small European minority and
above all, of its ruling classes. Although occasionally moderated when faced
with the revolt of the dominated, this process has continued ever since. But,
now during the current crisis, such concentration is being realized with a new
impetus, in a way perhaps even more violent and on a much larger, global
scale. The ‘Western’ European dominators and their Euro-North American
descendants are still the principal beneficiaries, together with the nonEuropean part of the world not quite former European colonies, Japan mainly,
and mainly their ruling classes. The exploited and the dominated of Latin
America and Africa are the main victims.
A relation of direct, political, social and cultural domination was
established by the Europeans over the conquered of all continents. This
domination is known as a specific Eurocentered colonialism. In its political,
above all the formal and explicit aspect, this colonial domination has been
defeated in the large majority of the cases. America was the first stage of that
defeat, and afterwards, since the Second World War, Asia and Africa. Thus
the Eurocentered colonialism, in the sense of a formal system of political
domination by Western European societies over others seems a question of the
past. Its successor, Western imperialism, is an association of social interests
between the dominant groups (‘social classes’ and/or ‘ethnies’) of countries
with unequally articulated power, rather than an imposition from the outside.
However, that specific colonial structure of power produced the specific
social discriminations which later were codified as ‘racial’, ‘ethnic’, ‘anthropological’ or ‘national’, according to the times, agents, and populations
involved. These intersubjective constructions, product of Eurocentered colonial
domination were even assumed to be ‘objective’, ‘scientific’, categories, then of
a historical significance. That is, as natural phenomena, not referring to the
history of power. This power structure was, and still is, the framework within
which operate the other social relations of classes or estates.
In fact, if we observe the main lines of exploitation and social domination
on a global scale, the main lines of world power today, and the distribution of
Cultural Studies Vol. 21, Nos. 2 3 March/May 2007, pp. 168 178
ISSN 0950-2386 print/ISSN 1466-4348 online – 2007 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals DOI: 10.1080/09502380601164353
resources and work among the world population, it is very clear that the large
majority of the exploited, the dominated, the discriminated against, are
precisely the members of the ‘races’, ‘ethnies’, or ‘nations’ into which the
colonized populations, were categorized in the formative process of that world
power, from the conquest of America and onward.
In the same way, in spite of the fact that political colonialism has been
eliminated, the relationship between the European also called ‘Western’
culture, and the others, continues to be one of colonial domination. It is not
only a matter of the subordination of the other cultures to the European, in an
external relation; we have also to do with a colonization of the other cultures,
albeit in differing intensities and depths. This relationship consists, in the first
place, of a colonization of the imagination of the dominated; that is, it acts in
the interior of that imagination, in a sense, it is a part of it.
In the beginning colonialism was a product of a systematic repression, not
only of the specific beliefs, ideas, images, symbols or knowledge that were not
useful to global colonial domination, while at the same time the colonizers
were expropriating from the colonized their knowledge, specially in mining,
agriculture, engineering, as well as their products and work. The repression
fell, above all, over the modes of knowing, of producing knowledge, of
producing perspectives, images and systems of images, symbols, modes of
signification, over the resources, patterns, and instruments of formalized and
objectivised expression, intellectual or visual. It was followed by the
imposition of the use of the rulers’ own patterns of expression, and of their
beliefs and images with reference to the supernatural. These beliefs and images
served not only to impede the cultural production of the dominated, but also
as a very efficient means of social and cultural control, when the immediate
repression ceased to be constant and systematic.
The colonizers also imposed a mystified image of their own patterns of
producing knowledge and meaning. At first, they placed these patterns far out
of reach of the dominated. Later, they taught them in a partial and selective
way, in order to co-opt some of the dominated into their own power
institutions. Then European culture was made seductive: it gave access to
power. After all, beyond repression, the main instrument of all power is its
seduction. Cultural Europeanisation was transformed into an aspiration. It was
a way of participating and later to reach the same material benefits and the
same power as the Europeans: viz, to conquer nature in short for
‘development’. European culture became a universal cultural model. The
imaginary in the non-European cultures could hardly exist today and, above
all, reproduce itself outside of these relations.
The forms and the effects of that cultural coloniality have been different as
regards to times and cases. In Latin America, the cultural repression and the
colonization of the imaginary were accompanied by a massive and gigantic
extermination of the natives, mainly by their use as expendable labor force, in
COLONIALITY AND MODERNITY/RATIONALITY 169
addition to the violence of the conquest and the diseases brought by
Europeans. Between the Aztec- Maya-Caribbean and the Tawantinsuyana (or
Inca) areas, about 65 million inhabitants were exterminated in a period of less
than 50 years. The scale of this extermination was so huge that it involved not
only a demographic catastrophe, but also the destruction of societies and
cultures. The cultural repression and the massive genocide together turned the
previous high cultures of America into illiterate, peasant subcultures
condemned to orality; that is, deprived of their own patterns of formalized,
objectivised, intellectual, and plastic or visual expression. Henceforth, the
survivors would have no other modes of intellectual and plastic or visual
formalized and objectivised expressions, but through the cultural patterns of
the rulers, even if subverting them in certain cases to transmit other needs of
expression. Latin America is, without doubt, the most extreme case of cultural
colonization by Europe.
In Asia and in the Middle East, the high cultures could never be destroyed
with such intensity and profundity. But they were nevertheless placed in a
subordinate relation not only in the European view, but also in the eyes of
their own bearers. Through the political, military and technological power of
its foremost societies, European or Western culture imposed its paradigmatic
image and its principal cognitive elements as the norm of orientation on all
cultural development, particularly the intellectual and the artistic. That
relationship consequently became a constitutive part of the conditions of
reproduction of those societies and cultures that were pushed into
Europeanisation of everything or in part.
In Africa, cultural destruction was certainly much more intensive than in
Asia, but less than in America. Nor did the Europeans there succeed in the
complete destruction of the patterns of expression, in particular of
objectification and visual formalization. What the Europeans did was to
deprive Africans of legitimacy and recognition in the global cultural order
dominated by European patterns. The former was confined to the category of
the ‘exotic’. That is, doubtless, what is manifested, for example, in the
utilization of the products of African plastic expression as motive, startingpoint, source of inspiration for the art of Western or Europeanized African
artists, but not as a mode of artistic expression of its own, of a rank equivalent
to the European norm. And that exactly identifies a colonial view.
Coloniality, then, is still the most general form of domination in the world
today, once colonialism as an explicit political order was destroyed. It doesn’t
exhaust, obviously, the conditions nor the modes of exploitation and
domination between peoples. But it hasn’t ceased to be, for 500 years, their
main framework. The colonial relations of previous periods probably did not
produce the same consequences, and, above all, they were not the corner
stone of any global power.
170 CULTURAL STUDIES
‘Race’ and coloniality of power
Coloniality of power was conceived together with America and Western
Europe, and with the social category of ‘race’ as the key element of the social
classification of colonized and colonizers. Unlike in any other previous
experience of colonialism, the old ideas of superiority of the dominant, and the
inferiority of dominated under European colonialism were mutated in a
relationship of biologically and structurally superior and inferior.1
The process of Eurocentrification of the new world power in the following
centuries gave way to the imposition of such a ‘racial’ criteria to the new social
classification of the world population on a global scale. So, in the first place,
new social identities were produced all over the world: ‘whites’, ‘Indians,
‘Negroes’, ‘yellows’, ‘olives’, using physiognomic traits of the peoples as
external manifestations of their ‘racial’ nature. Then, on that basis the new
geocultural identities were produced: European, American, Asiatic, African,
and much later, Oceania. During European colonial world domination, the
distribution of work of the entire world capitalist system, between salaried,
independent peasants, independent merchants, and slaves and serfs, was
organized basically following the same ‘racial’ lines of global social
classification, with all the implications for the processes of nationalization of
societies and states, and for the formation of nation-states, citizenship,
democracy and so on, around the world. Such distribution of work in the
world capitalist system began to change slowly with the struggles against
European colonialism, especially after the First World War, and with the
changing requirements of capitalism itself. But distribution of work is by no
means finished, since Eurocentered coloniality of power has proved to be
longer lasting than Eurocentered colonialism. Without it, the history of
capitalism in Latin America and other related places in the world can hardly be
explained.2
So, coloniality of power is based upon ‘racial’ social classification of the
world population under Eurocentered world power. But coloniality of power
is not exhausted in the problem of ‘racist’ social relations. It pervaded and
modulated the basic instances of the Eurocentered capitalist colonial/modern
world power to become the cornerstone of this coloniality of power.
Eurocentrism, cultural coloniality and modernity/rationality
During the same period as European colonial domination was consolidating
itself, the cultural complex known as European modernity/rationality was
being constituted. The intersubjective universe produced by the entire
Eurocentered capitalist colonial power was elaborated and formalized by the
Europeans and established in the world as an exclusively European product and
COLONIALITY AND MODERNITY/RATIONALITY 171
as a universal paradigm of knowledge and of the relation between humanity
and the rest of the world. Such confluence between coloniality and the
elaboration of rationality/modernity was not in anyway accidental, as is shown
by the very manner in which the European paradigm of rational knowledge
was elaborated. In fact, the coloniality of power had decisive implications in
the constitution of the paradigm, associated with the emergence of urban and
capitalist social relations, which in their turn could not be fully explained
outside colonialism and coloniality particularly not as far as Latin America is
concerned. The decisive weight of coloniality in the constitution of the
European paradigm of modernity/rationality is clearly revealed in the actual
crisis of that cultural complex. Examining some of the basic questions of that
crisis will help to illuminate the problem.
The question of the production of knowledge
For a start, in the current crisis of the European paradigm of rational
knowledge, the latter’s fundamental presupposition is questioned: vis.
knowledge as a product of a subject-object relation. Apart from the problems
of validation of knowledge implied, that presupposition raises other problems
worthy of a brief presentation here.
First, in that presupposition, the ‘subject’ is a category referring to the
isolated individual because it constitutes itself in itself and for itself, in its
discourse and in its capacity of reflection. The Cartesian ‘cogito, ergo sum’,
means exactly that. Second, the ‘object’ is a category referring to an entity not
only different from the ‘subject’! individual, but external to the latter by its
nature. Third, the ‘object’ is also identical to itself because it is constituted by
‘properties’ which give it its identity and define it, i.e., they demarcate it and
at the same time position it in relation to the other ‘objects’.
What is in question in this paradigm is, firstly, the individual and
individualist character of the ‘subject’, which like every half-truth falsifies the
problem by denying intersubjectivity and social totality as the production sites
of all knowledge. Secondly, the idea of ‘object’ is incompatible with the results
of current scientific research, according to which the ‘properties’ are modes
and times of a given field of relations. Therefore there is not much room for an
idea of identity as ontologically irreducible originality outside the field of
relations. Thirdly, the externality of the relations between the ‘subject’ and
the ‘object’, founded on differences of nature, is not only an arbitrary
exaggeration of the differences, since current research rather leads to the
discovery that there exists a deeper communication structure in the universe.
Much more important and decisive, is that in such a cognitive perspective it is
implied a new radical dualism: divine reason and nature. The ‘subject’ is
172 CULTURAL STUDIES
bearer of ‘reason’, while the ‘object’, is not only external to it, but different
nature. In fact, it is ‘nature’.
One can, of course, recognize in the idea of ‘subject’ as an isolated
individual, an element and an instance of the process of liberation of the
individual with respect to the adscriptive social structures that imprisoned it in
Europe. The latter condemned the individual to one single place and social role
during its entire life, as happens in all societies with rigidly fixed hierarchies
sustained by violence and by ideologies and corresponding imagery. This was
the case of the premodern European cultures/societies. That liberation was a
social and cultural struggle associated with the emergence of social relations of
capital and ofurban life. But, on the other hand, that proposal is today
inadmissible in the current field of knowledge. The differentiated individual
subjectivity is real’, but it is not an entity, so it doesn’t exist only vis-a-vis itself
or by itself. It exists as a differentiated part, but not separated, of an
intersubjectivity or intersubjective dimension of social relationship. Every
individual discourse, or reflection, remits to a structure of intersubjectivity.
The former is constituted in and vis a vis the latter. Knowledge in this
perspective is an intersubjective relation for the purpose of something, not a
relation between an isolated subjectivity, and that something.
Probably it is not accidental that knowledge was considered then in the
same way as property as a relation between one individual and something
else. The same mental mechanism underlies both ideas at the point when
modern society was emerging. Nevertheless, property, like knowledge, is a
relation between people for the purpose of something, not a relation between
an individual and something. These phenomena differ in that the property
relation exists in a material as well as in an intersubjective manner; knowledge,
on the other hand, only as an intersubjective relationship.
It seems, then, that one can demonstrate the association between
individualism/dualism and the European social and cultural conflicts at the
time when the main European paradigm of rationality was elaborated. But in
that individualism/dualism there is another component, the explanation of
which is not exhausted in the internal context of Europe: the ‘other’ is totally
absent; or is present, can be present, only in an ‘objectivised’ mode.
The radical absence of the ‘other’ not only postulates an atomistic image of
social existence in general; that is, it denies the idea of the social totality. As
European colonial practice was to show, the paradigm also made it possible to
omit every reference to any other ‘subject’ outside the European context, i.e.,
to make invisible the colonial order as totality, at the same moment as the very
idea of Europe was establishing itself precisely in relation to the rest of the
world being colonized. The emergence of the idea of the ‘West’ or of
‘Europe’, is an admission of identity that is, of relations with other cultural
experiences, of differences with other cultures. But, to that ‘European’ or
‘Western’ perception in full formation, those differences were admitted
COLONIALITY AND MODERNITY/RATIONALITY 173
primarily above all as inequalities in the hierarchical sense. And such
inequalities are perceived as being of nature: only European culture is
rational, it can contain ‘subjects’ the rest are not rational, they cannot be or
harbor ‘subjects’. As a consequence, the other cultures are different in the
sense that they are unequal, in fact inferior, by nature. They only can be
‘objects’ ofknowledge or/and of domination practices. From that perspective,
the relation between European culture and the other cultures was established
and has been maintained, as a relation between ‘subject’ and ‘object’. It
blocked, therefore, every relation of communication, of interchange of
knowledge and of modes of producing knowledge between the cultures, since
the paradigm implies that between ‘subject’ and ‘object’ there can be but a
relation of externality. Such a mental perspective, enduring as practice for five
hundred years, could only have been the product of a relation of coloniality
between Europe and the rest of the world. In other terms, the European
paradigm of rational knowledge, was not only elaborated in the context of, but
as part of, a power structure that involved the European colonial domination
over the rest of the world. This paradigm expressed, in a demonstrable sense,
the coloniality of that power structure.
As has been widely discussed, especially since the Second World War, the
formation and the development of certain disciplines, such as Ethnology and
Anthropology, have always shown that kind of ‘subject-object’ relations
between the ‘Western’ culture and the rest. By definition, the other cultures
are the ‘object’ of study. Such studies about the Western cultures and societies
are virtually non existeni except as ironical parodies (‘The ritual among the
Nacirema’ a anagram of ‘American’ is a typical example).
The question of totality in knowledge
In spite of its absence in the Cartesian paradigm, the intellectual necessity of
the idea of totality, especially in relation to social reality was present in the
European debate; early on in the Iberian countries (Victoria, Sua´rez) and in the
preservation of power defended by the Church and the Crown, and in France
somewhat later (eighteenth century), and then already as a key element of
social criticism and of alternative social proposals. Above all, from SaintSimon, the idea of social totality was spread together with proposals of
revolutionary social change, in confrontation with the atomistic perspective of
social existence then predominant among the empiricists and among the
adherents of the existing social and political order. In the twentieth century,
totality became a perspective and a category generally admitted in scientific
investigations especially those about society.
European-Western rationality/modernity is constituted not only in a
disputatious dialogue with the church and with religion, but also in the very
174 CULTURAL STUDIES
process of restructuration of power, on the one hand, in capitalist and urban
social relations and nation-states; and, on the other, in the colonization of the
rest of the world. This was probably, not divorced from the circumstance that
the idea of social totality was developed according to an organicist image,
which led to adopting a reductionist vision of reality.
In fact, that perspective was certainly useful to introduce and to fix the
idea of social totality, i.e., society. But it was also instrumental in making the
same with two other ideas: one, society as a structure of functional relations
among each and every one of the parts, and therefore linked to the action of
one sole logic, and therefore, a closed totality. It led later to a systemic idea of
totality in structural- functionalism. The other idea was society as an organic
structure, where the parts are related according to the same rules of hierarchy
between the organs, as the image we have of every organism, and in particular
the human one. Where there exists a part ruling the rest (the brain) though
it cannot expunge them in order to exist the rest (in particular the
extremities) cannot exist without being subordinately related to the ruling part
of the organism.
It is an image diffused with the enterprise and the relations between
entrepreneurs and workers, prolonging the legend of Menenius Agrippa’s
ingenious discourse in the beginning of the Roman Republic, which was to
dissuade the first strikers in history: the owners are the brain, and the workers
are the arms which form society together with the rest of the body. Without
the brain, the arms would be meaningless, and without the latter the brain
could not exist. Both are necessary in order to keep the rest of the body alive
and healthy without which neither the brain nor the arms could exist. Kautsky’
proposal, adopted by Lenin, is a variant of this image, where the proletarians
are unable by themselves to elaborate their class-consciousness, and the
bourgeois intelligentsia and/or the petite bourgeoisie are the ones who have to
teach it to them. Not by accident Lenin explicitly argued already in his polemic
with the Russian Populists (‘Who are the Friends of the People’), that society
is an organic totality. In Latin America, the image has been used repeatedly.
Recently, for instance, by Jaime Paz Zamora, in a journalist interview,
referring to the relation between the political parties and the trade unions,
between the intellectuals and the workers in Bolivia: the parties are the head,
the unions are the feet. This idea frequently impregnates the practices of most
of the political parties and their popular ‘bases’.
This organicist concept of social totality, of society, is not incompatible
with the general paradigm of knowledge as a subject-object relation nor its
systemic variant. They are an alternative option in the atomistic perspective of
reality, but they sustain themselves in the same paradigm. However, during
the ninetennth century and a great part of the twentieth, social criticism and
the proposals of social change could be propped up by the organic view,
because the latter made manifest the existence of power as articulator of
COLONIALITY AND MODERNITY/RATIONALITY 175
society. It thus contributed to establishing and to debating the question of
power in society.
On the other hand, those organicist ideas, imply the presupposition of an
historically homogenous totality, in spite of the fact that the order articulated
by colonialism was not homogenous. Hence, the colonized part was not, at
bottom, included in that totality. As is well known, in the Europe of the
Enlightenment the categories of’ humanity’ and ‘society’ did not extended to
the non-Western peoples, or only in a formal way, in the sense that such
recognition had no practical effects. In any case, in accord with the organic
image of reality, the ruling part, the brain of the total organism, was Europe,
and in every colonized part of the world, the Europeans. The well-known
claptrap that the colonized peoples were the ‘white mans’ burden’ (Kipling), is
directly associated with that image.
In this way, finally, the ideas of totality, which elaborated an image of
society as a closed structure articulated in a hierarchic order with functional
relations between its parts, presupposed a unique historical logic to the
historical totality, and a rationality consisting in the subjection of every part to
that unique total logic. This leads to conceiving society as a macro-historical
subject, endowed with a historical rationality, with a lawfulness that permits
predictions of the behavior of the whole and of all its part, as well as the
direction and the finality of its development in time. The ruling part of
the totality incarnated, in some way, that historical logic, with respect to the
colonial world i.e. Europe. Not surprisingly then, history was conceived as a
evolutionary continuum from the primitive to the civilized; from the
traditional to the modern; from the savage to the rational; from pro-capitalism
to capitalism, etc. And Europe thought of itself as the mirror of the future of
all the other societies and cultures; as the advanced form of the history of the
entire species. What does not cease to surprise, however, is that Europe
succeeded in imposing that ‘mirage’ upon the practical totality of the cultures
that it colonized; and, much more, that this chimera is still so attractive to so
many.
The epistemological reconstitution: de-colonization
The idea of totality in general is today questioned and denied in Europe, not
only by the perennial empiricists, but also by an entire intellectual community
that calls itself postmodernist. In fact, in Europe, the idea of totality is a
product of colonial/modernity. And it is demonstrable, as we have seen above,
that the European ideas of totality led to theoretical reductionism and to the
metaphysics of a macro-historical subject. Moreover, such ideas have been
associated with undesirable political practices, behind a dream of the total
rationalization of society.
176 CULTURAL STUDIES
It is not necessary, however, to reject the whole idea of totality in order to
divest oneself of the ideas and images with which it was elaborated within
European colonial/modernity. What is to be done is something very different:
to liberate the production of knowledge, reflection, and communication from
the pitfalls of European rationality/modernity.
Outside the ‘West’, virtually in all known cultures, every cosmic vision,
every image, all systematic production of knowledge is associated with a
perspective of totality. But in those cultures, the perspective of totality in
knowledge includes the acknowledgement of the heterogeneity of all reality; of
the irreducible, contradictory character of the latter; of the legitimacy, i.e.,
the desirability, of the diverse character of the components of all reality and
therefore, of the social. The idea of social totality, then, not only does not
deny, but depends on the historical diversity and heterogeneity of society, of
every society. In other words, it not only does not deny, but it requires the
idea of an ‘other’ diverse, different. That difference does not necessarily
imply the unequal nature of the ‘other’ and therefore the absolute externality
of relations, nor the hierarchical inequality nor the social inferiority of the
other. The differences are not necessarily the basis of domination. At the same
time and because of that historical-cultural heterogeneity implies the copresence and the articulation of diverse historical ‘logic’ around one of them,
which is hegemonic but in no way unique. In this way, the road is closed to all
reductionism, as well as to the metaphysics of an historical macro- subject
capable of its own rationality and of historical teleology, of which individuals
and specific groups, classes for instance, would hardly be carriers or
missionaries.
The critique of the European paradigm of rationality/modernity is
indispensable even more, urgent. But it is doubtful if the criticism consists
of a simple negation of all its categories; of the dissolution of reality in
discourse; of the pure negation of the idea and the perspective of totality in
cognition. It is necessary to extricate oneself from the linkages between
rationality/modernity and coloniality, first of all, and definitely from all power
which is not constituted by free decisions made by free people. It is the
instrumentalisation of the reasons for power, of colonial power in the
first place, which produced distorted paradigms of knowledge and spoiled
the liberating promises of modernity. The alternative, then, is clear: the
destruction of the coloniality of world power. First of all, epistemological decolonization, as decoloniality, is needed to clear the way for new
intercultural communication, for an interchange of experiences and meanings,
as the basis of another rationality which may legitimately pretend to some
universality. Nothing is less rational, finally, than the pretension that the
specific cosmic vision of a particular ethnie should be taken as universal
rationality, even if such an ethnie is called Western Europe because this is
actually pretend to impose a provincialism as universalism.
COLONIALITY AND MODERNITY/RATIONALITY 177
The liberation of intercultural relations from the prison of coloniality also
implies the freedom of all peoples to choose, individually or collectively, such
relations: a freedom to choose between various cultural orientations, and,
above all, the freedom to produce, criticize, change, and exchange culture and
society. This liberation is, part of the process of social liberation from all
power organized as inequality, discrimination, exploitation, and as domination.
Notes
Translated from the Spanish original by Sonia Therborn. This essay was originally
published in Globalizations and Modernities. Experiences, Perspectives and Latin America,
Stockholm, FRN-Report, 99: 5, 1.
1 Here is not the place for a more detailed discussion on the origins of the idea
of ‘race’. See Quijano (1992).
2 As for Latin America, see Quijano (1993).
References
Quijano, Anibal (1992) ‘Raza, Etnia y Nacion: Cuestiones Abiertas’, in Jose
CarlosMariateguiyEuropa, ed. Roland Forgues, La otracaradelDescubrimiento,
Liina, Amauta, Peru.
*/*/ (1993) ‘America Latina en Ia Economia Mundial’, in Problemas dcl Desarrollo,
Revista del Instituto de Investigaciones de Ia Facultad de Econornja, UNAM, vol.
XXIV, no. 95, Mexico.
178 CULTURAL STUDIES

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We have highlighted some of the most popular subjects we handle above. Those are just a tip of the iceberg. We deal in all academic disciplines since our writers are as diverse. They have been drawn from across all disciplines, and orders are assigned to those writers believed to be the best in the field. In a nutshell, there is no task we cannot handle; all you need to do is place your order with us. As long as your instructions are clear, just trust we shall deliver irrespective of the discipline.

Are your writers competent enough to handle my paper?

Our essay writers are graduates with bachelor's, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college degree. All our academic writers have a minimum of two years of academic writing. We have a stringent recruitment process to ensure that we get only the most competent essay writers in the industry. We also ensure that the writers are handsomely compensated for their value. The majority of our writers are native English speakers. As such, the fluency of language and grammar is impeccable.

What if I don’t like the paper?

There is a very low likelihood that you won’t like the paper.

Reasons being:

• When assigning your order, we match the paper’s discipline with the writer’s field/specialization. Since all our writers are graduates, we match the paper’s subject with the field the writer studied. For instance, if it’s a nursing paper, only a nursing graduate and writer will handle it. Furthermore, all our writers have academic writing experience and top-notch research skills.
• We have a quality assurance that reviews the paper before it gets to you. As such, we ensure that you get a paper that meets the required standard and will most definitely make the grade.

In the event that you don’t like your paper:

• The writer will revise the paper up to your pleasing. You have unlimited revisions. You simply need to highlight what specifically you don’t like about the paper, and the writer will make the amendments. The paper will be revised until you are satisfied. Revisions are free of charge
• We will have a different writer write the paper from scratch.
• Last resort, if the above does not work, we will refund your money.

Will the professor find out I didn’t write the paper myself?

Not at all. All papers are written from scratch. There is no way your tutor or instructor will realize that you did not write the paper yourself. In fact, we recommend using our assignment help services for consistent results.

What if the paper is plagiarized?

We check all papers for plagiarism before we submit them. We use powerful plagiarism checking software such as SafeAssign, LopesWrite, and Turnitin. We also upload the plagiarism report so that you can review it. We understand that plagiarism is academic suicide. We would not take the risk of submitting plagiarized work and jeopardize your academic journey. Furthermore, we do not sell or use prewritten papers, and each paper is written from scratch.

When will I get my paper?

You determine when you get the paper by setting the deadline when placing the order. All papers are delivered within the deadline. We are well aware that we operate in a time-sensitive industry. As such, we have laid out strategies to ensure that the client receives the paper on time and they never miss the deadline. We understand that papers that are submitted late have some points deducted. We do not want you to miss any points due to late submission. We work on beating deadlines by huge margins in order to ensure that you have ample time to review the paper before you submit it.

Will anyone find out that I used your services?

We have a privacy and confidentiality policy that guides our work. We NEVER share any customer information with third parties. Noone will ever know that you used our assignment help services. It’s only between you and us. We are bound by our policies to protect the customer’s identity and information. All your information, such as your names, phone number, email, order information, and so on, are protected. We have robust security systems that ensure that your data is protected. Hacking our systems is close to impossible, and it has never happened.

How our Assignment  Help Service Works

1.      Place an order

You fill all the paper instructions in the order form. Make sure you include all the helpful materials so that our academic writers can deliver the perfect paper. It will also help to eliminate unnecessary revisions.

2.      Pay for the order

Proceed to pay for the paper so that it can be assigned to one of our expert academic writers. The paper subject is matched with the writer’s area of specialization.

3.      Track the progress

You communicate with the writer and know about the progress of the paper. The client can ask the writer for drafts of the paper. The client can upload extra material and include additional instructions from the lecturer. Receive a paper.

4.      Download the paper

The paper is sent to your email and uploaded to your personal account. You also get a plagiarism report attached to your paper.

PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH US TODAY AND GET A PERFECT SCORE!!!